Effects of Countries of Transition Economies Essay

Centrally planned economy is an economic system in which the government makes almost all the decisions of a country’s economic activities (â€Å"Definition of ‘Centrally Planned Economy’†, 2014). For instance, government takes control on what goods and services is produced and how the resources are disseminated. The purpose of centrally planned economy is to enhance the productivity and management by allowing the planners to take advantage of better information accomplished through a combination of economic resources while making decisions on the topic of investment and also the distributions of economic inputs (â€Å"Command economy†, 2014). On the other hand, a market economy is an economic system in which the consumers and businesses who take control on making the economic decisions of a country (â€Å"Definition of ‘Market Economy’†, 2014). For instance, consumers and businesses decide the price of goods and services and how m uch to supply. However, there is little government involvement. In the late 1980s, the decline of the centrally planned economies has downgraded the living standards of the people (â€Å"Economic reforms (transition to a market-based economy)†, 2014). Hence, some of the centrally planned countries such as Poland, Hungary, and Yugoslavia intended to move towards a market economy because this is the only way to conquer the gap between these socialist economies and the western-like market economies (â€Å"Economic reforms (transition to a market-based economy)† , 2014). The transformation from a centrally planned economy to a market based economy has never been easy (â€Å"Command economy†, 2014). There is only one process of transition is considered as successful which is the People’s Republic of China (â€Å"Command economy†, 2014). On the  other hand, the Soviet Union’s transition was much more challenging (â€Å"Command economy†, 2014). This is because of the creation of price ceilings which is under the soviet’s planning (â€Å"Command economy†, 2014). This has caused the serious problem which is shortages (â€Å"Command economy†, 2014). A program of shock therapy has created which is to implement the transition process in a short period of time (â€Å"Command economy†, 2014). Hence, a big-scale privatization, budget cuts and liberalization of economy and finance policies. The fundamental economic problem is linked to the concern of scarcity (â€Å"The fundamental economic problem†, 2014). Scarcity happens when societies do not have enough resources to satisfy their unlimited needs and wants which is also call demand (â€Å"The fundamental economic problem†, 2014). Due to the limited resources and the unlimited demands, producers and consumers have to make a wise decision between competing alternatives (â€Å"The fundamental economic problem†, 2014). By making a wise economic decision, the alternatives must be sacrificed which also call the opportunity cost. This is because that they believe that the economic decision they made has a greater benefits than the opportunity cost (â€Å"The fundamental economic problem†, 2014). Thus, firms and households are the components from the circular flow diagram play an important role to deal with the problem of scarcity. However, government may involve in the market and thus government must also need to know which way is the best to use taxpayer’s money in order to enhance the country’s development. According to the America’s first Nobel Prize winner for economics, Paul Samuelson said that in order to solve the problem of scarcity facing by all of the societies, three basic questions must be answered which are what to produce, how to produce and whom to produce (â€Å"Samuelson’s three questions†, n.d.). The economic system performs similar function despite the differences in each system. First and foremost, one of the functions stated by College of Agriculture & Life Sciences (n.d), the basic functions of the economic are to determine what and how much to produce. To produce goods and services, firms should analyse on what are th e demands and the needs of the society and then produce goods that are highly values by the society. Therefore, consumers are willing to pay more to satisfy their needs and wants, which also benefits firms where they are able to maximize their supply and also income. Firms also could produce a number of goods depending on the market  size. Therefore, there won’t be wastage. Secondly is how are firms going to produce goods? The production of goods and services can be from different type of aspect. For example, firm uses labour production technology to produce their goods. It is because hiring labour from other countries like Bangladesh is cheap. Besides that is by using capital production technology. With the advance of technology, machines or robots are able to help in production by maximizing the use of resources and also maximize production with the resources available. Lastly is for whom the production of goods and services are for? Goods and services are normally produced for everybody as some firms may want to maximize their profits by targeting everybody. However, som e firms may want to segment their products to certain segments only. For instance, a firm which produces baby diapers only target for the baby segment. Some other firms also may target other segments according to race, culture and also age. By this, it will help to maintain the economy and also promote economic progress. Planned economies basically give the government autocracy type dominate over the resources of the nation (â€Å"planned economy†, 2014). They mitigate the need of private firms and permits the government to decide everything from allocation to pricing (â€Å"Economy system†, n.d.). Planned economies can offer stability, but also can restrict the progress and development of the nation if the government does not distribute resources to the innovative companies (â€Å"Economy system†, n.d.). The system rely on partial or total government control of the factors of production. All sources of production are owned and operated by the government (â€Å"Economy system†, n.d.). Individuals are not allowed to possess whichever property. The government programs, arranges, and coordinates the entire production procedure in many industries. Lastly, the government, make the most economic resolution with those on top of the hierarchy (â€Å"Economy system†, n.d.). Market Based economy is a free market economy where economic decisions are made. In other words, the production of the goods and services are control by the laws of supply and demand (Amadeo, 2014). Private firms or individuals take control of the allocation resources. Firms sell their goods and services at the highest probable price to maximize profit which consumers are capable and ready to pay (Amadeo, 2014). In a market economy, most goods and services are own privately. These enable private firms and individuals to make decision and choices freely.  Owners, consumers and workman are free to trade, purchase, generate resources in the free market (Amadeo, 2014). According to the law of demand, when the demand of an item increases, the prices will eventually increase (Amadeo, 2014). Besides, the forces of supply and demand are free from the involvement of the government. The duty of the government in market based economy is to simply insure that the market is set up and processing (â€Å"market economy†, n.d.) The standard of economic development in centrally planned system is low. It has a bigger agricultural sector as proportion of total productivity, despite on low priority of agriculture in resource distribution. It also has a high standard of forced saving and development was a high priority of centralized distribution. Furthermore, the system has a smaller service sector. Socialist countries less diverse because of not specializing conform to comparative advantage. Prices are also more stable. They inclined to display greater stability after most of the post-war era (economy system, n.d.). A centrally planned economy can lower unemployment rate, centralize resources on significant objective such as speedy economic growth and prevent wasteful reproduction of economic activities (â€Å"the pros of command economy†, 2014). A planned economy is essential at mobilizing economic resources. Firms have the capability to implement big projects, achieve their target and build industrial strength (â€Å"the pros of command economy†, 2014). Besides, it can avoid monopoly force misuse (â€Å"the pros of command economy†, 2014). Planned economies have the capability to refrain the lavish of monopoly force. It also permits the government to validly conquer market failure, inequality and set up a community that will maximize the welfare of people despite maximizing earnings. The country produces a planning scope of power so as to effectively implement long term goals (â€Å"the pros of command economy†, 2014). There is also more fair distribution of income and wealth (economy system, n.d.). On the other hand, planned economies mostly suffer from strict bureaucracy, responsibility problems, deficient decision-making, communication issues, self-serving action and incapable conformity (Chavez III, n.d.). These issues lead to excessive of shortages and surpluses of goods and services. Unsatisfactory allocation mostly leads to black market economies. The people in this system have a poor level of living and are poorly motivated (Chavez III, n.d.). There are pros and cons in every economy system. Centrally planned economy is fully  controlled by the government. Therefore, mentioned by Engrade (n.d), the relative merits for centrally planned economy is whereby the welfare of all citizens is the primary goal. In are other words, the citizen are put as the main priority to any situations. For example, goods are being produced based on the demand from the citizens. Next is prices of goods are being under control by the government so that citizens will be able to afford to consume goods and services. For instance, government provides petrol subsidies to citizens. Other than that is also said by Engrade (n.d), there will be no industrial unrest such as striking or riots as the governments c ontrols it in a systematic manner. For example, the wages of employee or the rights of citizens. Lastly is whereby government possess information to direct resources. The government have the information to where needs resources and where do not need. By this everything will be under control and there won’t be wastage. Compare to centrally planned economy, market based economy has more freedom as the government do not interfere with citizens doings. With private sector, the country is becoming more powerful. The relative merits of the market based economy is where with the boost of private sector, the country of state will be more updated and have more economic power. Private sector would be also able to bring in advance technology to increase the performance and the productivity of goods produced. Besides that, the prices of goods are determined by the market mechanism which is the types of goods and services of products being produced. Lastly but not least are competition among firms may help to improve the quality of goods produces (Engraded, n.d). For example, in order to attract more customers, private sector would upgrade the quality and also control the pricing in other to compete with other private sector. By this, I would benefit a lot to consumers and they will be willing to pay for it. Throughout the complete process of economic transformation which began in 1970s and accelerate in the 1980s as the economic conditions worsened (â€Å"Economic reforms (transition to a market-based economy)†, 2014). In 1989, the political systems in some of the socialist countries started their unexpected collapses which lead to the neglect of the centrally planned system and slowly transform into a market based economy system (â€Å"Economic reforms (transition to a market-based economy)†, 2014). Thus, it has brought some significant effects on the world undeveloped markets and on  global trading patterns of countries (â€Å"Economic reforms (transition to a market-based economy)†, 2014). In the first stage of the transformation, a number of fundamental economic improvements had to be executing in all these countries (â€Å"Economic reforms (transition to a market-based economy)†, 2014). These modifications were related to liberalization of prices, trade and also foreign exchange (â€Å"Economic reforms (transition to a market-based economy)†, 2014). Moreover, the transformation of the economy system also brings macro-economic stabilization to the countries (â€Å"Economic reforms (transition to a market-based economy)†, 2014). It helps to deal with the essential external and internal disparities of the national economies which are high or hyper-inflation (â€Å"Economic reforms (transition to a market-based economy)†, 2014). Additionally, transition to market based economy also facilitate in the aspect of restoration of private assets, positioning the conditions, legal and organizational structure required for an economy based in personal enterprises and economic activities (â€Å"Economic reforms (transition to a market-based economy)† , 2014). Other than this, it also enabling the reimbursement or re-compromise of the accumulated foreign debt and, overall, it helps to take the advantages of national economy which include the development of the banking and financial segment and the attraction of foreign capitals and investments (â€Å"Economic reforms (transition to a market-based economy)†, 2014). The other effect is that it helps the countries to set up a standardized exchange rate (â€Å"Economic reforms (transition to a market-based economy)†, 2014). Lastly, the transition towards the market-based economy system had aid the countries in the elimination of state control over foreign trade and established legal regulations in order to stimulate the entrepreneurship development (â€Å"Economic reforms (transition to a market-based economy)† , 2014). In the past decades, millions of countries and people think that planned economy was the best method to operate their economies. There are still some other countries currently under planned system, like North Korea. However, planned system tends to lose out from major inefficiencies and it work out not as successful as other systems. Market and command countries incline to place distinct preference on the part of government in the economy. The essential economic problem is scarcity and choice. Because of scarcity, choices have to be made. The transformation had improved the development of the economy  and brings stabilization to the nation. With reinforced globalization, we became more acutely conscious of the mutuality of all countries in our world economy (â€Å"COMPARATIVE ECONOMIC SYSTEM†, n.d.). References Amadeo.K, (2014). Market Economy. Retrieved from http://useconomy.about.com/od/US-Economy-Theory/a/Market-Economy.htm. ASIA-PACIFIC ECONOMICS Blog, (2014). Command economy pros and cons. Retrieved from http://apecsec.org/command-economy-pros-and-cons/ Centrally planned economy. (2014). Definition of ‘Centrally Planned Economy’. Retrieved from http://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/centrally-planned-economy.asp. Command economy. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.answers.com/topic/planned-economy. Chavez III.F, (n.d). What Is a Centrally Planned Economic System?. Retrieved from http://www.ehow.com/facts_7703633_centrally-planned-economic-system.htm. College of Agriculture & Life Sciences. (n.d). The Functions of An Economic System. Retrieved from http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/are012/lecturepdf/lectur7.pdf. Economic Education. (n.d.). COMPARATIVE ECONOMIC SYSTEM. Retrieved from http://www.econedlink.org/lessons/EconEdLink-print-lesson.php?lid=322&type=student. Economy System, (n.d). Planned economy. Retrieved from http://www.ssag.sk/SSAG%20study/EKO/Economic%20Systems.pdf. Engraded. (n.d). Economis Systems. Retrieved from https://wikis.engrade.com/economicsystems. European Commission. (2014). Economic reforms (transition to a market-based economy). Retrieved from https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/multisite/etc/en/content/economic-reforms-transition-market-based-economy. Investor Words, (2014). Planned Economy. Retrieved from http://www.investorwords.com/8175/planned_economy.html#ixzz34n1pNDUu. Market economy, (2014). Definition of ‘Market Economy’. Retrieved from http://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/marketeconomy.asp. The economic problem, Samuelson’s three questions. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.economicsonline.co.uk/Competitive_markets/The_economic_problem.html. The fundamental economic problem. (2007). Retrieved from http://econ.economicshelp.org/2007/09/fundamental-economic-problem.html. .

Corporal Punishment in Public Schools

Corporal punishment is the intentional use of physical pain as a method of changing behavior. Numerous nations have prohibited the use of corporal punishment in public schools, but the United States of America is a special case. Thirty states have prohibited the use of corporal punishment in public schools while twenty states have not, Texas being one of them. The use of corporal punishment in public schools should be prohibited because it restricts a student's academic success, facilitates aggression and violence in an adolescent's behavior, all while having no clear evidence that it actually works.Corporal punishment creates an unhealthy educational environment which directly correlates with impeding students' academic performance. Even though one student receives punishment, this affects all the students who witness it, constructing â€Å"an environment of education that can be described as unproductive, nullifying, and punitive† (â€Å"Corporal Punishment in Schools†). Corporal punishment creates an atmosphere of fear in the classroom which can severely hurt a student's ability to do well in school.Studies show that â€Å"as a group, states that paddled the most improved their scores the least,† while â€Å"the ten states with the longest histories of forbidding corporal punishment improved the most† (â€Å"Corporal Punishment in Schools and†¦ †). Today, succeeding in high school is very important, and with good reason. How well a student does in high school is what paves their way to a good college. Corporal punishment is used to deter bad behavior, but it puts students at a very serious disadvantage against students who learn in non-corporal punishment states.By definition, corporal punishment is said to change the behavior of the victim so that he or she will not act in the same way again, although there is no concrete evidence that supports this claim. In fact, â€Å"no clear evidence exists that such punishment lead to better control in the classroom† (â€Å"Corporal Punishment in Schools†). Thinking logically, hurting a child/adolescent will not result in better behavior because pain does not explain why bad behavior is wrong. A child/adolescent's brain is still developing, so just hurting an child/adolescent and then thinking that everything will be better is backward thinking.â€Å"Physically punishing children has never been shown to enhance moral character development or increase the students' respect for teachers or other authority figures in general,† meaning corporal punishment is not even capable of doing what it is supposed to do (â€Å"Corporal Punishment in Schools†). Corporal punishment is being used ineffectively and the consequences far outweigh the potential good that it doesn't do. Though corporal punishment is effective in a short period of time, it causes more harm than good.In school, student's are taught to be nice to others and to handle sit uations with a logical and calm mind, but corporal punishment â€Å"promotes a very precarious message: that violence is an acceptable phenomenon in our society† and â€Å"encourages children to resort to violence because they see their authority figures or substitute parents using it† (â€Å"Corporal Punishment in Schools†). Essentially, children and adolescents are being told that violence is okay and that if someone steals someone's pencil, then it is okay to go up to that person and start hitting them.Yes, spanking, paddling, and other forms of corporal punishment are â€Å"quick and it's effective – and that's true,† but that is all it is, quick and effective (â€Å"More Than 200,000 Kids Spanked At Schools†). A student may behave for a week, a month, maybe even for the rest of the school year, but corporal punishment cannot keep the behavior of a child/adolescent under control for the rest of his/her life. The memory of being hit is no t so profound that it deters him/her from robbing a bank, or breaking into someone's home when he/she is thirty years old and can take care of themselves.â€Å"Corporal punishment has also been linked to criminal and antisocial behaviors, likely because corporal punishment does not facilitate children's internalization of morals and values† (Barwick). If a victim of corporal punishment starts a family and their child misbehaves, physically hurting the child will probably be the first though to come to mind. Corporal punishment creates a cycle of violence and pain because of the lasting physical and mental scars it can leave. Thus, corporal punishment should be prohibited in all states of the United States of America. A deleterious classroom environment restricts a students academic success.In the U. S. A. , twenty states have legalized the use of corporal punishment in public schools, even though there is no clear evidence that corporal punishment does indeed change the behav ior of the inflicted for the better. What corporal punishment is linked to is reinforcement of aggression and violence in the behavior of the injured when he/she are older. Corporal punishment does control the behavior of a child/adolescent temporarily, it does not help in the long run, which is what school is about; school prepares the individuals of the future for the rest of their lives.

The implications of the previous implementation of the electronic Essay

The implications of the previous implementation of the electronic identification and central database management of sheep in the UK farming industry - Essay Example he various aspects of the economy – referring to the national economy or the economy of a greater region, like the European Union – that create the framework in which a series of activities – mostly the financial ones – is developed. For states that are members to the European Union all economic activities – as most of their activities – need to be evaluated in the context of the relevant European rules, ethics and practices, in other words, European economic environment is also likely to affect the economic activities and initiatives developed in the members of the Union – apart from the national economic environment. Current paper focuses on the examination of the advantages and problems of existing system of identification and tracking of sheep in UK. At the same time reference is made to the benefits and problems of the system that is going to be replaced the existing one by the end of December 2009. The effects of both these syste ms on the British and the European economic environment are also identifying and analysed – at the level that they can offer explanations on the reasons that led to the initial use of information systems for the particular economic activity but also the reasons that led to the need for the replacement of these systems at the specific point of time. The rules that are currently used for the identification of sheep in UK were introduced on the 11th of January 2008; farmers across the country were appropriately informed in order to take the measures required (DEFRA, 2009). Existing system offers a series of advantages – compared to the systems of sheep identification used in the past. These advantages could be summarized as follows: a) In the existing system, different provisions have been introduced regarding the animals with different characteristics in a way that the existing system of identification can be applied on all sheep and goats across UK. As an example, a differentiation is made between the animals born

Self-assessment Chapter 6 and 7 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Self-assessment Chapter 6 and 7 - Assignment Example I need to accommodate more other people’s ideas and give them time to pass their opinions across during our conversations. Secondly, I can easily control my emotions during a conversation irrespective of the topic. I am good in giving feedbacks to the other people. I have the ability to usually return messages as required to the respective people who need the information. At this point, I only need to maintain my character; otherwise, there is not a lot to be improved. On the other hand, I really enjoy coaching people. I have a good reputation among my friends due to the portrayed capacity to guide others. The area I need to improve on is leniency. Due to the high regard expressed to me by my friends, I am normally compassionate towards people who do me wrong. I possess a high need for both my individual achievement and that of my friends. Moreover, I am good at listening to other people and make changes. However, I need improvement on this area since I need to be more concerned with my own success. When it comes to conflict styles, I normally use the collaboration style to resolve them. I have the ability to confront others when in a conflict as I try to pass across my opinion on the issues regarding the plight. The area I need to improve on is avoiding the usage of force since being assertive may be mistaken for passing my opinions forcefully. During a conflict, I am normally quick in adjusting towards the solution of the issue or issues at hand. I do this to ensure that I meet other people’s needs too (Lussier & Achua, 2010). The total evaluation = 25. This shows that I have an In-Group relationship with my manager. This means that we have a strong relationship that is guided by respect, mutual understanding and trust (Lussier & Achua, 2010). My personality affects my dyadic relationships, followership and delegation. I have the agreeableness Big Five personality. I have always had the need for affiliation where I create a good

The Effects of Coffee and British Imperialism on the Global Economy Research Paper

The Effects of Coffee and British Imperialism on the Global Economy from 1870 to 1910 - Research Paper Example Towards the mid 19th century, the global economy was substantially influenced by the rapid increase in the consumption of coffee in Europe and the United States and this lead to more developments in the production and trade of coffee. Production growth was not only witnessed across the vast British empire but was also evident in the Latin Americas particularly in Brazil. With the expansion of the British colonies in Africa, Asia as well as in the Pacific and Indian oceans, the British Empire came to dominate the international trade particularly the production and consumption of coffee which was key elements of the 19th century global economy. On the other hand, the ex British colonies such as in the Americas also asserted significant influence on the global economy with regard to the production of raw materials and export industry. The rise of coffee as one of the major commodities of international trade in the 19th century can be traced to the British colonial production of coffee in the Americas, Asia and Africa as well as in the Indian Ocean. The unprecedented production of coffee which was witnessed in these colonies as well the increased demand for coffee in the European countries resulted in the domination of the international market by coffee merchants and traders. The global economy of the time had not however reached the stage of market capi talism. The market size was comparatively smaller and coffee was primarily used as a luxury drink. The small size of the coffee market from 1870 to 1910 was generally attributed to the fact to the inefficient colonial production methods such as the use of coercion as opposed to the application of new technology. By the end of 1910, the British coffee colonialism had significantly declined most probably because many of the colonies gained independence. Coffee continued to play a greater role in the global economy but the role of the British Imperialism was increasingly replaced by the newly independent countries such as Brazil, Caribbean and the Spanish America. This paper focuses on the role of the British imperialism and the coffee trade in the global economy of 19th century particularly from 1870 to 1910. The contributions of the coffee industry to the Global economy of 19th century Although initially regarded as a luxury product, coffee rapidly gained popularity in the mid 19th c entury to become a mass necessity particularly in the United States and the European counties such as Britain, France and Germany2. One of the major factors that contributed to the explosion of the global demand for coffee was the industrial revolution. For example the industrial revolution not only increased the purchasing power of the ordinary persons due to the improved economies but also resulted in increased efficiency and reduced costs of coffee production thereby making it cheaper and affordable to many people in Europe and United States. After slave trade was outlawed in the 1850s, industrialization played a key role in the coffee production in several parts of the British Empire as well as in the Latin America. A number of infrastructural developed which occurred during the period were largely attributed to the coffee production and trade. In many colonies as well as former colonies that produced coffee, railways were constructed to aid coffee export. For example

Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Annotated Bibliography

Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia - Annotated Bibliography Example The researcher of this essay aims to analyze and discuss studies, that were conducted by the researchers on the subject of Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia disease, that is a cancer that mainly attacks the bone marrow and arises from cancerous and immature white blood cells called lymphoblast. The two subtypes of lymphocytes are T and B cells. The authors of the studies, that were discussed stipulate that 80% of acute lymphoblastic leukemia arise from immature B-lymphocytes. The disease is most prevalent in children; nevertheless, it has also increased in elderly populace mostly of ages 60 years and over. The main symptoms of acute lymphoblastic leukemia are buildup of the abnormal and immature white blood cells within the bone marrow and blood. Blast cells collect out of the normal cells within the bone marrow thus lowering blood counts. The disease results to decrease in normal white cells making an individual to be susceptible to infection such as sinuses, bronchitis, and pneumonia. T he main signs are; enlargement of the lymph nodes within the neck and arms coupled with enlargement of the spleen. This journal also describes the treatment options for acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia is treated by multiple chemotherapy drugs via mouth or via special intravenous line that is normally placed within a vein in the arm or chest and maintain for several months. According to Knowles, the chromosomes that lead to the development of Acute Lymphoblastic leukemia is sill not known today.

Social Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Social Media - Essay Example Today more than 250 million people accesses Facebook. Twitter also has more than 14 million users, and YouTube is viewed by 100 million viewers every month (Zarrella, 2010, p. 1). These statistics data show that a huge chunk of the population is attached with the social media; and if this opportunity is not utilized, it’s a total waste. This paper highlights legal requirements for social media marketing with special reference to Facebook. The Legal components for Social Media Marketing The huge popularity of the social media outlets has made the economists recognize and tap the market by appealing their products and services through these websites. As faster the website grows, the words spread quicker. Many of the marketers have utilized the social media in order to generate attention, promotion and exposure of their brands. But while utilizing the social media, the companies should have a sound knowledge of the legal system and requirement. Trademark and Copyright Issue While using the social media outlets for promoting their brands, the companies should protect their trademark and copyright. Since such a marketing leads to informal and impromptu communication on real time basis, the copyright and trademarks of the company may fall under third party abuse. To avoid this, company should regularly monitor the social media platform to ensure that there is no misuse of the intellectual property. There are special services that monitor the profile or consumer names that are alike to the company’s name or brand. Facebook has provided instructions for submitting takedown notice that relates to â€Å"allegedly copyright infringing content† (Steinman & Hawkins, 2010, p. 3) that comes under the â€Å"Federal Digital Millennium Copyright Act† (Steinman & Hawkins, 2010, p. 3). Deceptive and misleading Contents The law treats the social media marketing and the traditional marketing in the same way. The law states that promotion of any type of de ceptive or unfair practice is unlawful. The law prohibits any type of deceptive conduct like â€Å"advertising misleading price comparisons, rebates or sweepstakes promotions† (Steinman & Hawkins, 2010, p. 4). In 2009, there was a lawsuit for deceptive content against Zynga, which provides games in Facebook. Though it was proved that a third party marketer was responsible for deceptive advertising, but still both Facebook and Zynga were made liable for this act. Being a smart marketer, one has to be careful about such incidents. Terms and conditions of the social Media Social networking websites have their own terms and conditions regulating the advertising and commercial practices that are conducted on the websites like â€Å"consumer sweepstakes, contests, and giveaways† (Steinman & Hawkins, 2010, p. 5). The marketer has to be aware of the terms and conditions and has to act accordingly. The social networking sites often change these rules. One has to strictly monito r them. Facebook prohibits uploading of contents that infringes the right of the third party. Privacy and data security Since through social media, a brand’s product and services get promoted, this may raise an issue of security and privacy. It is important for the marketer of the company to be aware of these issues and take appropriate measures in order to minimize exposure to liabilities related to collection, maintenance and use of data. Facebook has its own privacy policies that regulate the use of third party conduct and consumers

World Religions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

World Religions - Essay Example Renowned in the world of academia, he is the celebrated author of a great many pieces of work related to sociology and religion, one of which is The Heretical Imperative. The purpose of my essay is to elucidate on his theory of heretical imperative. In order for us to understand what that is, we must first understand the key concepts of secularization, modernity, and religion since they play an important part in Mr. Berger’s theory of the heretical imperative. Dr. Peter Berger has written a lot regarding sociology of religion. Therefore, now the question arises, what is religion? According to Berger, â€Å"Religion is the human enterprise by which a sacred cosmos is established...sacred here, meaning a quality of mysterious and awesome power, other than man and yet related to him, which is believed to reside in certain objects of experience† (Berger, 1990, pp. 3-28). Religion is universally agreed to be born of faith in something that is bigger than anything we can ever conceive. A set of guiding rules are established from this faith. Religion helps us by making use of these rules, to create a sacred world for us; sacred because it is a world of mystical occurrences, not directly linked to us but a big part of us. A person can be sacred; an institution, a book, or perhaps a statue too. Anything or any being with which we attach a mystical and awesome power is, in all essence, sacred. And that sacredness is what Berger believes to be religion. In his book, Berger explains the other two vital concepts: modernity and secularization. In sociology, modernity is something that arose post industrial era. It is the phasing out of feudalism by people and their entering into the world that is similar to ours. It is losely linked with modernity is secularization. In Berger’s perspective - and in most sociologists’ as well - secularization marks the movement of the world from living with a close affiliation with religious beliefs to non-religiou s beliefs and secular states. Berger believes that it is pluralism that caused modernity and secularization. So what do these concepts have to do with the concept of heretical imperative? â€Å"Religion itself becomes a matter of choice; of necessary choice insofar there are few taken-for-granted religious ‘facts’ to fall back upon. In other words, religion becomes a heretical imperative† (Knepper, 2001). Here Knepper writes a review by using some of Berger’s own words to describe what a heretical imperative is. We live with a heretical imperative because of the pluralism that exists in our lives. The great numbers of institutions, religions, theories, paradigms give us too many choices. Religion itself is a matter of choice now. â€Å"Berger argues in his book that to face up to the relativity of theological knowledge requires that one affirm certain elements of the tradition and reject others; that is the heretical imperative† (Woodhead, 2001, pp. 1-9). According to Woodhead, Peter Berger has explained in his book that in traditional cultures (of the pre-modern man) people were exposed to a certain set of fundamental principles and rules. It is true that the so many cultures existing today are based on different religious and mythological epistemologies, but each culture, according to Berger, has an internal, underlying consistency; it must have it if it wishes to survive. To challenge this underlying mythology is called heresy. Berger explains heresy to mean to choose for one's self. The irony here, obviously, is that one will be heretical whether they choose traditional values or not. This is because when one chooses any values, or makes any kind of decision regarding religion, the substitutes and other choices are taken into

Different Ways in Collecting Physical Evidence Assignment

Different Ways in Collecting Physical Evidence - Assignment Example Introduction The process of collecting, packaging and preserving the evidence is a key function of the crime scene team in ensuring that the crime investigators have all the necessary materials for not only finding out the exact details of how a crime was committed but also linking the crime to the correct offenders and thereafter to be able to present all this evidence in a way that assures that the correct offenders are prosecuted. There are certain set and standard ways of collecting, packaging and preserving this evidence and these have to be followed to the letter. It is of paramount importance that the evidence does not suffer any deterioration, damage or contamination that may render it unusable, unreliable or questionable. The collection and documentation of physical evidence is thus one of the most important functions in law enforcement. 1. There are many different types of physical evidence that is collected and gathered at a crime scene. ... Another type of physical evidence is biological matter. This includes bodily fluids such as blood and semen. Yet another type of physical evidence is drug evidence. Drugs or controlled substances are usually put in a class of their own when it comes to physical evidence because of the specific types of analysis that they have to undergo to determine their exact nature, purity and quality. Drugs are also secured in a special way because of their value and the fact they are strictly controlled materials ( . 2. One prime example of physical evidence is fingerprints. Fingerprints are particular to a particular individual and the presence of a set of a person’s fingerprints at a crime scene is usually very definitive evidence placing the person at that particular crime scene. Fingerprints, especially where they are clear and complete are usually conclusive evidence of a person touching a surface and thus being physically there. Another example of physical evidence is blood especial ly when the crime scene includes the injury or death of a person. The evidence of blood determines the nature and scope of a victim’s injuries. The spread and the splatter of the blood at a crime scene indicate the way the injury that resulted in the loss of blood was inflicted. Trails of blood could also indicate how a victim or a body was dragged or moved either to or from a crime scene. A third example of physical evidence is fibers or pieces of clothing materials that are found on a victim. The nature and state of these fibers- if they are torn in particular way or how many they are would determine if there was a struggle or fight that went on at the crime scene.

International Tourism - Sweden Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

International Tourism - Sweden - Essay Example These flows had sturdy environmental and economic consequences leading to enhanced shareholders within the tourism sector. These groups fit in to both the public and private sectors hence emerging a broader perspective of public account, which is compared internationally with the general actions of different financial activities. In Sweden, several factors comprising of substitute price, as well as comparative income was not well thought-out as an important criteria for establishing demand models of international tourism. Rather, meaningful events have been established for determining the demand models of tourism within Sweden. Other factors comprising of natural attractions, travel regulation of government, cultural significances and climate also influenced tourism demand of Sweden. Geographical Overview Basing on geographical nature of Sweden, the country is considered small but contains forests with approximately 100, 000 lakes, which attracted tourists (Goeldner et al., 2000). Sw eden is thought to be a parliamentary realm due to the presence of milder climate presented by the Atlantic Gulf Stream of Sweden. The most tourist attraction in Sweden is its uniqueness basing on new, intact, fertile thrilling countryside having attractive water and ever green vegetation site for tourists. Mountains on the other side also contribute to attracting visitors to the country. This was confirmed in the 19th century whereby the Alpine associations were the origin of the tourists’ institution. In the year 1885, the Sweden Touring Club became the major tourist’s attraction nationally. History of Sweden History is considered one of the major attractive magnitudes of tourist intentions and as well, it is a major tool that enhances distinctive experience of tourist (Goeldner et al., 2000). Legends, stories and the local historical sites of that country establish the enduring experience towards the country’s tourists. History is known to distinguish and as well bring together the United Nations and this resulted in another country visiting the other. This is because momentous move become the trendiest and as well, the country’s branded image are the thriving examples, which enhanced the application of historic sites as among the attracting features of the country. Tourists visited Falun copper mine in Sweden situated in the Dalarma province in the year 1615. A German visitor tripped it and a French envoy visited it in 1634. The mineralogist and an English doctor further visited the scene whereby the tourists’ book endured since 1760s and the duty guides were also present at that time within the mining site. Another tourist booklet, which draw attention towards the tourists in the first spa of Sweden dated back in 1682 and was named â€Å"Les divertissements de Medevji†. This booklet consisted of numerous sequences of transcripts and letters that were issued to the manor houses and castles. Culture According to Goe ldner et al. (2000), culture involve a group of behaviors, wants, basic values and perceptions discovered by the societal member within family and various significant institutions. All this established the general

Is Psychology a Science Essay Example for Free

Is Psychology a Science Essay Psychology is commonly defined as scientific study of human behaviour and cognitive processes. Broadly speaking the discussion focuses on the different branches of psychology, and if they are indeed scientific. However, it is integral in this to debate to understand exactly the major features of a science, in order to judge if psychology is in fact one. There must be a definable subject matter this changed from conscious human thought to human and non-human behaviour, then to cognitive processes within psychologys first eighty years as a separate discipline. Also, a theory construction is important. This represents an attempt to explain observed phenomena, such as Watsons attempt to account for human and non-human behaviour in terms of classical conditioning, and Skinners subsequent attempt to do the same with operant conditioning. Any science must have hypotheses, and indeed test them. This involves making specific predictions about behaviour under certain specified conditions, for example, predicting that by combining the sight of a rat with the sound of an iron bar banging behind his head, a small child will learn to fear the rat, as is the case of Little Albert (1923). Also, empirical methods are used in scientific fields to collect data, relevant to the hypothesis being tested, as is the case in many psychological experiments, such as the use of brain scanning in Dement and Kleitmans 1957 study. Science is meant to be objective and unbiased. It should be free of values and discover the truths about what it is studying. Positivism is the view that science is objective and a study of what is real. For example, schizophrenia, when diagnosed as being caused due to excess dopamine, is being studied in a scientific manner. The explanation does not take into account any cultural customs or individual differences that might lead to schizophrenic behaviour. However, even in scientific research like this the person is doing the diagnosing has his or her own views, and may misinterpret behaviour because of his or her own subjective biases. For example, if someone talks about hearing voices, they may be referring to a spiritual experience, but a medical practitioner might well diagnose schizophrenia. So objective, value-free study is not easy, because the scientist has views and biases, and cultural or other issues are perhaps important factors. Some say that a truly objective study is not possible. In conclusion, its a science.

Quantitative Comparison of Learning Environment Effect

Quantitative Comparison of Learning Environment Effect CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 4.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter presents the data analysis and interpretation also purpose of this study was to compare the learning of developmental mathematics course which received instruction in two different environments to determine whether mathematic online course enhanced their learning. Specifically, the study investigated whether there was a significant difference in mathematics online course as measured by the exam of students enrolled in mathematic classes receiving traditional instruction, with online instruction. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for the analysis with an alpha = .05 level of significance. 4.2 T-Test: Paired Two Samples for Means: Paired data tests engage taking exam score without online course and with online course students participate the mathematic course from the same large number (n=60) of object and operating a hypothesis test on the differences between the without online course and with online course samples. TABLE 1 student’s result 4.3 SPSS Annotated Output: The paired samples t-test is hypothesis test of the difference two groups means based on the means of two paired samples. Under this test, the two samples are compared in such a way, that the elements in one sample are matched or paired with the elements or paired with the other sample, thereby helping in doing a precise analysis in finding out whether any significant difference exists in the two series. In our analysis, under paired samples t-test, the two samples are: Exam score with online course Exam score without online course Thus, the paired sample t-test has been used to compare the means of the abovementioned two variables. As such, it helps in finding out if there is a statistically significant difference between the Exam score with online course at which trading took watched video on Moodle tool and the Exam score without online course. For the paired samples t-test, we state the null hypothesis that there is no significant mean difference between the two series and hence the two series do not statistically differ the alternate hypothesis is the two series differ from each other significantly. So, the hypothesis can be stated as follows: H0: m =0 H1: m ≠ 0 Where, mean is difference between the two series. The alternative is two-tailed at a signification level of 5% (ÃŽ ±=0.05). That this study used SPSS to conduct the paired samples t-test. The SPSS output is shown in this table which views that difference Exam score with online course and Exam score without online course is significant or not. In the Paired Samples Statistics Box, the mean for the WithoutOnlineCourse is 16. The mean for the WithOnlineCourse is 21.3667. The standard deviation for the WithoutOnlineCourse is 6.44874 and for the WithOnlineCourse, also 8.15997 . The number of participants in each condition (N) is 30. Paired Samples Test Box This is the next box as will views. It contains info about the paired samples t-test that the conducted. There will be most interested in the value that is in the final column of this table. Take a look at the Sig. (2-tailed) value. Correlation This is the correlation coefficient of the pair of variables indicated. This is a measure of the strength and direction of the linear relationship between the two variables. The correlation coefficient can range from -1 to +1, with -1 indicating a perfect negative correlation, +1 indicating a perfect positive correlation, and 0 indicating no correlation at all. (A variable correlated with itself will always have a correlation coefficient of 1.) You can think of the correlation coefficient as telling you the extent to which you can guess the value of one variable given a value of the other variable. The .160 is the numerical description of how tightly around the imaginary line the points lie. If the correlation was higher, the points would tend to be closer to the line; if it was smaller, they would tend to be further away from the line. Sig This is the p-value associated with the correlation. Here, correlation is significant at the .05 level. Std Error Mean Standard Error Mean is the estimated standard deviation of the sample mean. This value is estimated as the standard deviation of one sample divided by the square root of sample size: 9.55739/sqrt(30) = . 1.74493. This provides a measure of the variability of the sample mean. Sig (2-Tailed) value This value will tell us if the two condition Means are statistically different. Often times, this value will be referred to as the p value. In this example, the Sig (2-Tailed) value is 0.005. If the Sig (2-Tailed) value is greater than 0.05 It is means there is no statistically significant difference between two groups. it can conclude that the differences between condition Means are likely due to chance and not likely due to the IV manipulation. If the Sig (2-Tailed) value is less than or equal to .05. You can conclude that there is a statistically significant difference between your two conditions. You can conclude that the differences between condition Means are not likely due to change and are probably due to the IV manipulation. What does the t-value and two-tailed P-value how do they compare to each other? Is this information significant enough to say that with online course came from the same family as without online course? A two-tailed P-value of 0.6, for example, would mean that there is a 0.6 (or 60%) chance that the two groups of score come from the same group. In other words, there is a 60% chance that the average score of the exam in each group is the same and would say that there is no significant difference between the ages of the two populations. The traditionally accepted P-value for something to be significant is P Larger t-values translate into smaller P-values. So the larger the t-value is the more likely the difference is significant. A critical t-value is the minimum t-value you need in order to have P 4.4 Testing Hypothesis: The results as reported in Table indicated there was statistically significant difference for method of instruction, p-value=0.005. Therefore, Null Hypothesis was rejected. There was a statistically significant difference in exam scores of without online course group and online course group mathematic courses, when adjusting for the effect of exam scores. Therefore was statistically significant difference in exam. 4.5 Finally With online course and without online course test scores of the group was compared. The average score in with online course was 21.3667, whereas the average score in the without online course was 16. This can be seen in figure 3. The P value two-tail test is used to control if the mean score of with online course and without online course tests are significantly different. Is the learning mathematic course with online course significantly better or worse? The P value is greater than t value which establishes that scores in with online course test are significantly different and higher than the scores in without online course test. This supports the premise that with online course Choices is effective instruction strategy to impart the importance of Hawler Institute of computer and concept of video technology. Therefor there was a statistically significant difference in exam scores, decidedly two methods The analysis of tests responses shows that the instruction methodology of imparting the concept of technical debt through with online course choices is effective. At the following figure 4.4 as shown rate of students participate with online course increased. Figure 7 online course CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION In view of the writing and the discoveries of the current study, a few conclusions can be drawn concerning developmental mathematics online course. The results of this study indicate that video technology can using for development mathematic online course. The mere presence of video online course does improve student learning mathematic lecture. Students have an interest in utilizing technology for a variety of purposes including academics. Online video course have the potential to be useful tools to improve learning. They provide educators the opportunity to create and record courses then upload on Moodle tool. Also give opportunity to student for participate mathematic course without missing lecture. SUMMARY Many students enter college without the mathematics skills and knowledge to successfully meet their educational and career goals (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2003b). Most colleges and universities offer developmental mathematics courses and other services to prepare these students for college-level mathematics courses. Developmental mathematics courses have been taught with the traditional lecture method used for years in most college-level courses (Armington, 2003; Kinney and Kinney, 2003; Maxwell, 1979; Miles, 2000; Roueche and Kirk, 1974). Educators are concerned about the low pass rates (Boylan, Bonham, and White, 1999; Trenholm, 2006; Waycaster, 2001; Wright, Wright, and Lamb, 2002) and are exploring alternative instructional approaches in order to increase the number of students who stay in school or institute, pass a class mathematic course, and graduate. Video mathematic online course make conceivable a variety of new showing methodologies, permitting students to have decisions about when, where, and how they learn math. The review of literature indicated a need for further studies on the impact of video record and uploaded on Moodle tool on the learning of developmental mathematics course. The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in the academic performance of students enrolled in a developmental mathematics course using traditional instruction with mathematic online course. Students’ mathematics course at the end of the course related to be exam at the Institute Hawler for Computer. Therefore, the exam, which measured mathematical performance with online course with without online course, was used as the Hypothesis in the analysis. T-Test: Paired Two Sample for Means adjusted the means of the exam paired groups. Null Hypothesis case there was significance difference in the mathematics lecture for developmental mathematics course using traditional lecture and video record and uploaded on Moodle then students participate with watched video online. The independent variable was method of instruction, and the dependent variable was the exam score. At the .05 level of significance, there was significant difference between the exam scores of students who completed a traditional developmental math course and watched video online course on Moodle tool. DISCUSSION LIMITATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY: The following recommendations for further investigation were based on the findings of this study. To further validate the findings of this research, the study should be replicated with a larger sample and in other developmental subject courses. Also recommended add same technology for learning in the institute Hawler for computer. REFERENCES Surname: KHUDHUR Name: WSHYAR OMAR Place and Date of Birth: TaqTaq, Erbil Kurdistan Iraq /1ST July 1983. Gender: MALE Address: STATE IRAQ, ERBIL – GOVERNORATE, KOYA CITY Language: KURDISH, ENGLISH Marital Status: MARRIAGE E-mail: [emailprotected] Mobile Phone: +90 548 873 7683, +964 772 159 7828 B.Sc. Software Engineering, Koya University Erbil, Iraq

Communicating within the Learning Disabilities | Reflection

Communicating within the Learning Disabilities | Reflection

Johnny Tremain :: essays research papers

Setting   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Boston Massachusetts around (1773 to 1775). Revolutionary War era.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Characters   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Johnny Lyte Tremain Young boy who’s mother died when he was young, apprenticed to a silversmith named Mr. Lapham. Main character in the book.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mr. Lapham A silversmith that Johnny is apprenticing. He is a good silversmith but he cannot remember his orders very well.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mrs. Lapham Johnny’s foster mother. She provides Johnny with room and board while he is shadowing Mr. Lapham.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cilla Lapham Third daughter out of four in the Lapham family. She is the nicest to Johnny. She is constantly taking care of her younger sister Isannah.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Isannah Lapham Fourth daughter in the Lapham family. She was the rudest to Johnny. Cilla had to take care of her because she was so small and sickly.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Rab Johnny’s closest friend. A couple of years older than Johnny, he worked for the Boston Observer printing newspapers. Rab helps Johnny throughout the story.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dusty & Dove Boys who were also apprenticed out to Mr. Lapham. Johnny was better at everything. The two boys got stuck with the worst jobs and did not like Johnny for being so good as a silversmith. Dove was mean to Johnny because Johnny was so bossy toward the both of them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Paul Revere A local Boston silversmith known for his great work. He was kind and generous. He was a member of the secretive â€Å"Observers† club at the Boston Observer. He is a Whig.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  John & Samuel Adams Local Whigs, highly recognized men in Boston. They are also part of the â€Å"Observers† club.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Merchant Jonathan Lyte A very prosperous merchant who is kin to Johnny. He is very dishonest and steals from Johnny. He wants nothing to do with Johnny.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lavinia Lyte Merchant Lyte’s daughter. She is very beautiful and men like her a lot. Johnny likes her. She is sort of rude to Johnny in the beginning but in the end, she becomes very nice to him.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  John Hancock Another well respected man in Boston. He is a local Whig and is also a member of the â€Å"Observers† Club.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mr. Lorne Johnny’s new master after his hand was severely injured at the Lapham’s silvershop. He is very kind and allows Johnny to deliver papers by horseback. Mr. Lorne is the writer and publisher of the Boston Observer   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Pumpkin A British Redcoat who befriended Johnny. In the end Johnny tries to help him escape from being a soldier and he is caught and killed for treason.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  General Stranger A British General Who helped Johnny with his horse riding skills. Johnny helps him by taking care of his horses.

1991: An Amazing Year! :: The Year 1991

History is replete with examples of the rise and fall of once great empires. December 1991 saw the end of a two super power world with the fall of the Soviet Union. In December, â€Å"as the world watched in amazement, the Soviet Union disintegrated into fifteen separate countries† (Cold War Museum). The United States was overjoyed as its enemy was, â€Å"brought to its knees, thereby ending the Cold War which had hovered over these two superpowers since the end of World War II† (Cold War Museum). The split of the Soviet Union made extremely large transformations in the world’s political and economic situation, which resulted in a reduction of global nuclear weapons, world economic cooperation, and the commercialization of once classified military technology. In Moscow on July 31, 1991, President Bush and Gorbashev, the leader of the Soviet Union, signed the START treaty to reduce nuclear weapons on both sides to 6,000—which was a 30-percent reduction of the previous amount being used. This was the first large-scale reduction of nuclear weapons in the history of the Cold War. As a result of this treaty, â€Å"The dangerous category of missiles with multiple independently targeted warheads (MIRVs) was reduced by half† (End of the Cold War). On December 25, 1991, Gorbachev resigned from presidency and the Soviet Union was officially broken up. All the former, â€Å"dependent republics within the old USSR proclaimed their independence, secured international recognition, and were admitted to the United Nations† (End of the Cold War). As a result of the strong working relationship between President Bush and Michael Gorbashev, as well as the relationship between Baker, the Secretary of State, and Foreign Minister Shevardna dze, the Soviet Union began to drastically reduce its military spending. This cooperation between Gorbashev and the West led to a backlash by the Soviet military and resulted in a failed coup attempt, which ended Gorbashev’s rule and resulted in the final collapse of the Soviet Union. Russia, no longer the Soviet Union, was now under a new leadership. Boris Yeltsin became the head of Russian republic and continued to integrate with the Western world. Russia took over the permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council and was invited to join the G-7 gathering of the world’s largest economic powers, therefore making it the G-8. This created a level of cooperation and communication between the two countries that did not exist during the Cold War.

The Influenza and Pneumonia Epidemic of 1918-1919 Essay -- American Am

The Influenza and Pneumonia Epidemic of 1918-1919 In the ten months between September 1918 and June 1919, 675,000 Americans died of influenza and pneumonia. When compared to the number of Americans killed in combat in World War I, World War II, Korea, and Vietnam combined- 423,000- it becomes apparent that the influenza epidemic of 1918-1919 was far more deadly than the war which it accompanied. (Crosby, 206-207) The United States and the rest of the world had been exposed to such epidemics in the past, but never at such a severe cost in human life. The influenza epidemic came in two waves. The first wave, in the spring of 1918, took far fewer victims than the second. Americans stricken with the flu that spring wondered at the intensity of its symptoms and its incredible contagion. Doctors noticed that the virus seemed to spread more quickly than it ever had before that year, but did not realize how quickly it would reach epidemic proportion. As summer approached, the disease appeared to have satisfied its appetite for new victims. However, the second, deadlier wave of influenza was just about ready to unleash itself on the world, and it did so quickly. By August 1918, the Surgeon General of the Army reported that the death rate from disease for American soldiers was almost 2/3 lower than the annual rate for civilian males of the same age. At the end of the month, the Spanish influenza virus mutated, and "epidemics of unprecedented virulence" exploded in the same week in three port cities thousands of miles apart: Freetown, Sierra Leone, Brest, Belgium, and Boston, Massachusetts. (Crosby, 37) It is still unknown whether this was the result of three appearances of a single mutation or three different simultaneous mutatio... ...wed that it had learned from its experience in 1918. Flu epidemics in the thirties and the fifties never approached the magnitude of the 1918-1919 disaster. Research across the world eventually isolated and identified the virus which causes influenza and the microorganisms which so often accompany it and cause deadly complications like pneumonia and strep and staph infections. The American public health system is one of, if not the, best in the world today at educating its citizens and preventing the spread of communicable disease. Historians can only speculate about what would have happened if people had applied the knowledge of today to the devastating epidemic of so many years ago. Â   Â   WORKS CITED Crosby, Alfred W., Jr. Epidemic and Peace, 1918. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1976. Hoehling, A.A. The Great Epidemic. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1961.

Historical Background of Victimology Essay

I. Introduction The nature and extent of victimization is not adequately understood across the world. Millions of people throughout the world suffer harm as a result of crime, the abuse of power, terrorism and other stark misfortunes. Their rights and needs as victims of this harm have not been adequately recognized. The UN General Assembly adopted the Declaration on Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power in 1985. This provides a universal benchmark by which progress can be assessed in meeting the needs of victims of crime and abuse of power. Much progress has been made since 1985 primarily by governments in Western Europe, North America and elsewhere. They have implemented programmes and laws to give effect to those basic principles but even in affluent countries much work remains. Additional resources are needed everywhere especially for countries that are developing and in transition. The convention on transnational organized crime includes a specific section to protect the rights of victims as does the optional protocol on trafficking. By June, 2005, 99 nations had already ratified the Statute of Rome that establishes a permanent International Criminal Court which gives effect to the principles in the Declaration. The rights of the victims of crime and abuse of power are still not adequately recognized in any part of the world. Their families, witnesses and others, who aid them, are still unjustly subjected to loss, damage or injury. They too often suffer hardship when assisting in the prosecution of offenders. The recent UN Congress in Bangkok also drew attention to the victims of terrorism. Victims of stark misfortunes such as natural disasters, accidents and diseases share similar trauma, loss and suffering. Services to meet the needs of victims have much in common between victims of crime, abuse of power and stark misfortunes. Action must be taken to advance research, services and awareness for victims across the world. This requires persons committed to these ideals, better services, more research, innovative education and training and continued advocacy and rights. It requires a process of assessing progress and acting to make the necessary improvements. II. DISCUSSION I. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF VICTIMOLOGY A. The Early Roots The word â€Å"victim† has its roots in many ancient languages that covered a great distance from northwestern Europe to the southern tip of Asia and yet had a similar linguistic pattern: victima in Latin; và ­h, wà ©oh, wà ­g in Old European; wà ­h, wà ­hi in Old High German; và © in Old Norse; weihs in Gothic; and, vinak ti in Sanskrit (Webster’s 1971). Victimology as an academic term contains two elements: †¢ One is the Latin word â€Å"Victima† which translates into â€Å"victim†. †¢ The other is the Greek word â€Å"logos† which means a system of knowledge, the direction of something abstract, the direction of teaching, science, and a discipline. Although writings about the victim appeared in many early works by such criminologists as Beccaria (1764), Lombroso (1876), Ferri (1892), Garà ³falo (1885), Sutherland (1924), Hentig (1948), Nagel (1949), Ellenberger (1955), Wolfgang (1958) and Schafer (1968), the concept of a science to study victims and the word â€Å"victimology† had its origin with the early writings of Beniamin Mendelsohn (1937; 1940), these leading to his seminal work where he actually proposed the term â€Å"victimology† in his article â€Å"A New Branch of Bio-Psycho-Social Science, Victimology† (1956). It was in this article that he suggested the establishment of an international society of victimology which has come to fruition with the creation of the World Society of Victimology, the establishment of a number of victimological institutes (including the creation in Japan of the Tokiwa International Victimology Institute); and, the establishment of international journals which are now also a part of this institute. Mendelsohn provided us with his victimology vision and blueprint; and, as his disciples we have followed his guidance. We now refer to Mendelsohn as â€Å"The Father of Victimology†. B. Critical Dates in Victimology †¢ 1924 Edwin Sutherland includes a chapter on victims in his criminology textbook. †¢ 1937 Beniamin Mendelsohn publishes his writings on the rapist and his victim. †¢ 1941 Hans von Hentig publishes article on victim and criminal interactions. †¢ 1947 Beniamin Mendelsohn coins the term â€Å"victimology† in a French journal. †¢ 1948 Hans von Hentig publishes his book The Criminal and His Victim. †¢ 1949 Frederic Wertham first used the word â€Å"victimology† in a book Show of Violence. †¢ 1957 Margery Fry proposes victim compensation in the London Times. †¢ 1958 Marvin Wolfgang studies homicide victims; uses the term â€Å"victim precipitation†. †¢ 1963 New Zealand enacts the first Criminal Compensation Act. †¢ 1965 California is the first state in the USA to start Victim Compensation. †¢ 1966 Japan enacts Criminal Indemnity Law. †¢ 1966 USA starts to survey crime victims not reported to the police †¢ 1967 Canada creates a Criminal Compensation Injuries Act as does Cuba and Switzerland. †¢ 1968 Stephan Schafer writes the first victimology textbook The Victim and His Criminal. †¢ 1972 The first three victim assistance programmes are created in St. Louis, Missouri, San Francisco, California and in Washington, D. C. †¢ 1973 the first international symposium on victimology is held in Jerusalem, Israel. †¢ 1974 the first police-based victim advocate project started in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA. †¢ 1975 The first â€Å"Victim Rights’ Week† is organized by the Philadelphia District Attorney, * Associate Professor, Criminology Department, California State University, Fresno; Director, Tokiwa International Victimology Institute, Tokiwa University Victimology Graduate School, Japan. Pennsylvania, USA. †¢ 1976 John Dussich launches the National Organization of Vi ctim Assistance (NOVA) in Fresno, California, USA. †¢ 1976 Emilio Viano launches the first scholarly journal devoted to victimology. †¢ 1976 James Rowland creates the first Victim Impact Statement in Fresno, California, USA. †¢ 1979 The World Society of Victimology is founded in Munster, Germany. †¢ 1980 Mothers Against Drunk Drivers (MADD) is founded by Candi Lightner after one of her twin daughters was killed by a drunk driver who was a repeat offender. †¢ 1981 President Ronald Reagan proclaims the first national Victims’ Rights Week in April. †¢ 1982 the first Victim Impact Panel established by MADD to educate drunk drivers about how their victims suffered, started in Rutland, Massachusetts, USA. †¢ 1984 The Victims of Crime Act (VOCA) establishes the national Crime Victims Fund from federal crime fines to pay for state victim compensation and services. †¢ 1985 The United Nations unanimously adopts the Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power. †¢ 1987 The US Department of Justice opens the National Victims Resource Centre in Rockville, Maryland. †¢ 1988 The first â€Å"Indian Nations: Justice for Victims of Crime† conference is held by the Office for Victims of Crime in Rapid City, South Dakota, USA. †¢ 1990 The European Forum for Victim Services was founded by all the national organizations in Europe working for victims of crime in consultative status with the Council of Europe and the UN. †¢ 1999 The United Nations and the US Office for Victims of Crime publish the Guide for Policymakers on the Implementation of the United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power and the Handbook on Justice for Victims: On the Use and Application of the United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power. †¢ 2002 On 11 April, 66 the Rome Statute was ratified & went into force on 1 July at which time the International Criminal Court became effective and it included the creation of a Victim and Witness Unit. †¢ 2003 On October 2nd the Tokiwa International Victimology Institute, in Mito Japan opened its doors to promote victim rights, to conduct seminars, courses, publish an international journal, and host annual symposia and lectures and research about victimology. †¢ 2004 The World Society of Victimology at its annual Executive Committee meeting in Orlando, Florida adopts a dramatic new strategic plan to commit itself to the ideals and promises of the UN Declaration. †¢ 2005 Japan puts the UN Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power into their national legislation by adopting a new fundamental law for crime victims. To ensure that the principles would be initiated, the Prime Minister established a cabinet level committee. The new law includes services for victims, restitution from the offender, information about criminal justice and a right to formally participate in the criminal justice process. C. Victim Assistance Since the mid 1970s victim assistance programmes in America had to cope with the realization that this new field did not have a professional corps of people with special training in dealing with crime victims. Those who were working in the programmes were a mixture of medical doctors, ministers, psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, nurses, on-the-job trained counsellors, persons outside the helping professions and volunteers with all levels of training. There were no international or national professional standards. There was no certificate or degree to prepare someone to do the work of helping victims recover. However, before formal victim assistance programmes evolved, there were some people trained to work with victim problems, especially people who had been helping child abuse and family violence victims. These were social workers. Today, the victim services scene has changed. There are a wide array of professionals and non-professionals working with victims. These would include: social workers, psychologists, psychiatrists, nurses, medical doctors, non-specific professionals (who received their formal degrees in other fields but were trained to help victims in the numerous training schools which are both part and independent of academic settings); and, volunteers (who also received their training in the numerous training schools which are both part and independent of academic settings, many of which are 40 hour training modules offered by the victim service agencies where they work). Today the field of victim assistance is the major career field in victimology for persons wanting to help victims of crime directly. The single largest and oldest university offering a bachelor’s degree in victimology and a victim services certificate is the California State University, Fresno. Worldwide, it can be estimated that there are about 20,000 victim service programmes now operating: reducing suffering and facilitating recovery. II. KEY CONCEPTS IN VICTIMOLOGY A. Concepts 1. â€Å"Victim† has it roots in the early religious notions of suffering, sacrifice and death. This concept of â€Å"victim† was well known in the ancient civilizations, especially in Babylonia, Palestine, Greece, and Rome. In each of these civilizations the law mandated that the victim should be recognized as a person who deserved to be made whole again by the offender. 2. â€Å"Crime victim† is a person who has been physically, financially or emotionally injured and/or had their property taken or damaged by someone committing a crime. 3. â€Å"Victimogenesis† refers to the origin or cause of a victimization; the constellation of variables which caused a victimization to occur. 4. â€Å"Victim Precipitation† a victimization where the victim causes, in part or totally, their own victimization. 5. â€Å"Vulnerability† is a physical, psychological, social, material or financial condition whereby a person or an object has a weakness which could render them a victim if another person or persons would recognize these weaknesses and take advantage of them. 6. â€Å"General Victim† is a person who has been physically, financially or emotionally injured and/or had their property taken or damaged by someone, an event, an organization or a natural phenomenon. 7. â€Å"Victimization† refers to an event where persons, communities and institutions are damaged or injured in a significant way. Those persons who are impacted by persons or events suffer a violation of rights or significant disruption of their well being. 8. â€Å"Victimology† is an academic scientific discipline which studies data that describes phenomena and causal relationships related to victimizations. This includes events leading to the victimization, the victim’s experience, its aftermath and the actions taken by society in response to these victimizations. Therefore, victimology includes the study of the precursors, vulnerabilities, events, impacts, recoveries, and responses by people, organizations and cultures related to victimizations. 9. â€Å"Abuse of Power† is the violation of a national or international standard in the use of organized powerful forces such that persons are injured physically, mentally, emotionally, economically, or in their rights, as a direct and intentional result of the misapplication of these forces. 10. â€Å"Victim Assistance, Support or Services† are those activities which are applied in response to victimizations with the intention of relieving suffering and facilitating recovery. This includes offering information, assessments, individual interventions, case advocacy, system advocacy, public policy and programme development. 11. â€Å"Victim Recovery† is the resumption of the same or better level of functionality as was enjoyed prior to victimization. Persons who have been victimized vary in their level of mental health and wellbeing prior to their victimization. Consequently, victimization affects each person in a different way and causes differing degrees of injury or trauma. In their recovery it is necessary for victims to first try to regain their previous level of functioning plus learn from their misfortune and hopefully exceed their previous level of functionality. To be recovered suggests that a person has at least regained their prior level of well-being and at best, has exceeded it. This state may be measured by identifying their previous mental condition and determining if they have at least regained that prior status using the criteria of: trust in others, autonomy of self, individual initiative, competency in daily activities, self-identity, interpersonal intimacy, control over person al situations, successful relationships, safety in daily activities, acknowledgment of memory, trauma symptoms have become manageable, self esteem is restored, resourcefulness is achieved, and there is an improved ability to ward off potential threats. 12. â€Å"Child Abuse† is the intentional application of sexual, physical, emotional or psychological injury to a child to include neglect at the hands of her or his parents or care-provider within the confines of their family or place of care. 13. â€Å"Victim Offender Mediation† (VOM) is a formal process for face-to-face meetings in the presence of a trained mediator between a victim of a crime and his/her offender who committed that crime. This is also called victim-offender dialogue, victim-offender conferencing, victim-offender reconciliation, or restorative justice. Often the victim and the offender are joined by their respective families and community members or other persons related to the crime event. In these meetings, the offender and the victim talk to each other about the victimization, the effects it had on their lives, and their feelings about it. The aim is to create a mutually agreeable plan to repair any damage or injury that occurred as a result of th e crime in the hopes of permanently eliminating the conflict that caused the crime in the first place. 14. â€Å"Restorative Justice† is a systematic formal legal response to crime victimization that emphasizes healing the injuries that resulted from the crime and affected the victims, offenders and communities. This process is a departure from the traditional retributive form of dealing with criminals and victims which traditionally have generally perpetuated the conflict which resulted in the original crime. 15. â€Å"Victim Trauma† includes emotional and physical experiences that produce pain and injuries. Emotional injury is a normal response to an extremely abnormal event. It results from the pairing of a painful or frightening emotional experience with a specific memory which emerge and have a long lasting effect on the life of a person. The more direct the exposure to the traumatic event, the higher the risk for emotional harm and prolonged effects. 16. â€Å"Crisis Intervention† is the provision of emergency psychological care to traumatized victims so as to help them return to an adaptive level of functioning and to prevent or mitigate the negative impact of psychological and emotional trauma. 17. â€Å"Compensation† is a formal administrative procedure provided by law which provides only money to victims for â€Å"out of pocket† real expenses directly resulting from the victimization to be paid by the state after the victim is found to qualify according to specific criteria determined by the respective state or federal law. 18. â€Å"Restitution† is a formal judicial procedure used by a judge after guilt is determined as part of a sentence which can provide money and/or services to the victim for damages or suffering which resulted from the victimization to be paid or performed by the offender. 19. â€Å"Victim Survey† is a periodic data collection and analysis process conducted usually by a government entity within the general population to study information about crime victims regardless whether they reported their victimization to the police or not. It typically uses a face-to-face or telephone interview (or sent questionnaire) and covers demographics, attitudes about crime and details about the victimizations experienced over the previous six months. 20. â€Å"Victim Rights† are privileges and procedures required by written law which guarantee victims specific considerations and treatment by the criminal justice system, the government and the community at large. B. Abuse of Power 1. Background In spite of the legal sanctions which exist throughout the world to prevent the abuse of power (AOP), it continues to occur with growing frequency and relative impunity. There are essentially five considerations to abuse of power: the type of abuser; the specific abuser; the method used; the victims; and the extent of injury and damage. In each of these five considerations there are numerous examples ranging from the Government of South Africa’s use of apartheid on Black South Africans causing extensive death and suffering, to the criminal organization known as the MAFIA which uses racketeering, coercion, intimidation, graft and corruption on innocent citizens causing extensive death, suffering and property loss. The most recent example of AOP is the government of Yugoslavia (now dominated by ethnic Serbs) using extreme forms of aggression, against Croats, Bosnia Muslims, and most recently ethnic Kosovans with: mass killings; mass rapes; extensive destruction of property; buildings, and sacred cultural symbols, for the most part ignoring the protocols found in the Geneva Conventions for the conduct of warfare. This macro criminological/victimological phenomenon has been extensively reported on by the media and by scholars, but predominantly in narrative form. Thus far, very few attempts have been made to isolate the key variables, explain the dynamics of these events and measure their occurrences. 2. Theoretical Problem Like all phenomena, these abuse of power events lend themselves to definitions, theoretical organization and measurement. The magnitude of these occurrences dramatically turn our heads away from the dispassionate evaluation of the facts. The drama of these events is so compelling, even trained theorists put aside their research tools and yield to the subjective descriptions which overwhelm those chronicling these massive abuses. In spite of the strong emotions, the magnitude of the problem calls for careful measurement, analysis and synthesis so that a degree of understanding can emerge. This proposal will consider using the social behavioural and conflict theories familiar to most criminologist who study macro criminological phenomena. III. MEASURING VICTIMIZATION A. The Importance and Limitations of Descriptive Research Descriptive research is primarily concerned with generally characterizing a phenomenon to determine basic information about amount, frequencies and categories of a particular theme. Thus, one of the basic types of data in descriptive research is nominal level data or the counting of â€Å"apples and oranges†. The most important type of victimological descriptive research are victimization surveys. These surveys have thus far become the backbone of victimology information. Not only do these surveys give us the number and types of victims, they also give us trend information so that we can compare victims from one jurisdiction to another, from one type of victim to another, and we can measure the rate of victimization for a given population in a given time period. Another important measurement using survey research is the measurement of behaviours that exist as continua. These types of research give us information about the feelings, opinions and responses the victims have. Thus, they are very important in understanding the impact of victimization and the progress of recovery. 1. The Necessity of Evaluative Research Another important type of research is the evaluative research used to measure the official government or organizational responses to victimization and the programmes used to help victims cope. These types of research are aimed at measuring the systemic aspects of the victim experience. This is usually focused on the â€Å"Twin Criteria of Success†: effectiveness, which evaluates the achievement of programme objectives; and, efficiency which evaluates the consumption of resources over the time needed to achieve objectives. Another aspect of evaluative research is accountability, both economic and political. Economic accountability focuses on whether the existence of a particular programme in a given community is justified given the funds available and the value-system currently in existence. Political accountability focuses on whether the existence of a victim programme and its costs are supported by those in power. A large part of accountability has to do with community values, outcome expectations and official responsibilities. The measurement of these variables helps to socially contextualize a victim programme or response within the larger society or culture. 2. Explaining the Victimization with Causal Research Perhaps the most challenging and difficult form of victimological research is causal research. This research attempts to explain why and how some variables are effected by other variables in those phenomena dealing with victims. For example, it might try to understand why some victims are severely traumatized by an event, while other victims are not seriously impacted by the same event. The usual method of this form of research is to first create hypotheses about the relationships between cause variables and effect variables. Then, to measure these variables and see if the data can support the hypotheses. Ultimately, this process can lead to understanding not just one casual link, but many connected causal links, or a causal chain. A victimologist can then develop a theoretical statement with the new facts uncovered using causal research. These theoretical statements help to understand complex social and psychological victim phenomenon. Consequently persons working to prevent victimization could have empirically derived facts so as to reduce the vulnerability of potential victims. Crisis interveners could effectively reduce the suffering of victims immediately after the victimization and prevent the escalation of trauma. Advocates and therapists, basing their response on protocol analysis, could better know what works to facilitate victim recovery and reduce or eliminate long-term suffering and promote the return to stable and functional lives for those victimized. IV. THE FUTURE OF VICTIMOLOGY A. Promising Practices As new programmes and new laws evolve some prove effective and others not. In the search for programmes and laws that fulfil the fundamental aims of the United National Declaration, â€Å"to be treated with compassion and respect for their dignity, to be provided with access to the mechanisms of justice and to prompt redress to be informed of their rights, to be informed of their role and the scope, timing and progress of the proceedings and of the disposition of their case, to be provided with proper assistance throughout the legal process, to have their privacy protected and insure their safety, to be considered for receipt of restitution, to be informed about receiving compensation.† These criteria determine the value of programmes and laws so that they can be evaluated and ultimately recommended as worthy of duplication. In each of the sub-categories of victim programmes, laws, practices and rights, specific examples have become known. Some of these are listed below (from the New Directions from the Field: Victims’ Rights and Services for the 21st Century, U.S. Department of Justice, 1998). 1. Law Enforcement †¢ In San Diego, California there is a partnership between the police and the YWCA which resulted in a Community Domestic Violence Resource Network. This has resulted in a major resource for all the police agencies in the community for accurate information about the availability of shelters at any given time. †¢ In Provo, Utah victims participate in crime solving, called â€Å"victim-assisted† investigations. †¢ In Orange County, California a group of five victim advocates working together in a non-profit programme work with police and prosecutors to ensure comprehensive services for victims of gang violence. 2. Prosecution †¢ In Kenosha, Wisconsin, a programme established by the district attorney established special prosecution units for domestic violence and sensitive crimes. †¢ In Pinellas County, Florida, the state’s attorney’s office established a special prosecutor to be responsible for all elder exploitation and neglect cases. This includes police training, community outreach and education for other prosecutors. †¢ In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the Victim Services Unit located in the District Attorney’s Office, employs Vietnamese and Cambodian victim-witness coordinators to assist victims from Southeast Asia throughout their case process, including translating information and helping victims with emergency medical and financial assistance. 3. Judiciary †¢ In Tucson, Arizona, the Municipal Court established a partnership with the police, victim advocates, prosecutors and health care professionals to form a Community Domestic Violence Awareness Centre. †¢ In New York State, the Permanent Judicial Commission on Justice for Children was established to provide assistance to children in the courts so as to provide a special space for child care so that those children whose parents are in court have a safe haven during their stay. †¢ In Santa Clara County, California, the courts have established local family violence councils to provide a comprehensive response to domestic violence. 4. Corrections †¢ In Texas, the Department of Criminal Justice started a victim-offender mediation/dialogue programme for victims of severe violence and their incarcerated offenders. †¢ In California one of the best known victim-offender programmes is the Impact of Crime on Victims (IOC) initiated by the California Youth Authority. This programme is aimed at providing 40 hours of education to inform offenders about how crimes affect victims and society. †¢ The US Federal Bureau of Prisons piloted victim awareness classes on drug and domestic violence crimes for offenders in halfway houses in Baltimore, Maryland, and Tampa, Florida. B. Reality of Promising Practices Although a wide variety of new programmes have been tried and dubbed as â€Å"promising† most of these have not been subjected to any form of empirical evaluation. Before these programme can be accepted as worthy of duplication, they must be carefully scrutinized over a sufficient time period. V. Demographic Characteristics The risk of becoming a crime victim varies as a function of demographic variables such as: †¢ Gender †¢ Age †¢ Race †¢ Socioeconomic class Gender With the exception of sexual assault and domestic violence, men have higher risk of assault than women (Gelles & Straus, 1988; Hanson et al., 1993; Norris, 1992). Lifetime risk of homicide is three to four times higher for men than women (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992). Age Adolescents have substantially higher rates of assault than young adults or older Americans (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992; Hanson et al., 1993; Kilpatrick, Edmunds & Seymour, 1992; Kilpatrick et al., in press; Reiss & Roth, 1993; Whitaker & Bastian, 1991). Data from the National Crime Victimization Survey indicate that 12-to-19 year olds are two to three times as likely as those over 20 to become victims of personal crime each year (Whitaker & Bastian, 1991). Data from The National Women’s Study indicate that 62% of all forcible rape cases occurred when the victim was under 18 years of age (Kilpatrick et al., 1992). Race Racial and ethnic minorities have higher rates of assault than other Americans (FBI Uniform Crime Report, 1992; Hanson et al., 1993; Kilpatrick et al., 1991; Reiss & Roth, 1993). In 1990, African-Americans were six times more likely than white Americans to be homicide victims (FBI Uniform Crime Report, 1992). Rates of violent assault are approximately twice as high for African- and Hispanic-Americans compared to White Americans (Reiss & Roth, 1993). Kilpatrick et al. (1991) found that African-Americans (28%) and Hispanic-Americans (30%) were significantly more likely than White Americans (19%) to have ever been violent victims of crime. Socioeconomic Class Violence disproportionately affects those from lower socioeconomic classes (U. S. Bureau of the Census, 1991). Family income is related to rates of violence and victimization, with lower income families at a higher risk than those from higher income brackets (Reiss & Roth, 1993). †¢ For example, in 1988, the risk of victimization was 2.5 times greater for families with the lowest incomes (under $7,500) compared to those with the highest ($50,000 and over) (Reiss & Roth, 1993). Using longitudinal data from The National Women’s Study, Kilpatrick et al., (in press) found that women with household incomes less than $10,000 had odds 1.8 times greater than those with incomes of $10,000 or more of becoming a rape or aggravated assault victim in the two year follow-up period. Poverty increased the risk of assault even after controlling for the effects of prior victimization and sensation seeking. However, some other studies report that family income is a less important predictor of victimization than gender, age, or ethnicity (Reiss & Roth, 1993). Interpreting Demographic Characteristic Data Some of the conflicting findings about demographic characteristics as risk factors for violent crime are attributable to methodological variations across studies. Another reason for conflicting findings is that many demographic variables are confounded. That is, they are so interrelated as to cause some difficulty in separating out their relative contributions. Demographic variables of age, gender, and racial status all tend to be confounded with income: young people tend to be poorer than older people; women tend to have less income than men; and African-Americans tend to have less income than white Americans. Repeat Victimization and the Cycle of Violence Until recently, there was little appreciation of the extent to which many people are victims of crime not just once, but several times during their lifetime. There was sufficient understanding of how repeated victimization increases the risk for and complexity of crime-related psychological trauma. Nor did we understand the extent to which victimization increases the risk of further victimization and/or of violent behavior by the victim. Several studies show that a substantial proportion of crime victims has been victimized more than once and that a history of victimization increases the risk of subsequent violent assault (e.g. Kilpatrick et al., in press; Koss & Dinero, 1989; Resnick, Kilpatrick, Dansky, Saunders & Best, 1993; Kilpatrick et al., 1992; Reiss & Roth, 1993; Wyatt, Guthrie & Notgrass, 1992; Zawitz, 1983). Other research suggests that the risk of developing PTSD and substance use/abuse problems is higher among repeat victims of violent assault than among those who have experienced only one violent assault (e.g., Kilpatrick et al., in press; Breslau et al., in press; Kilpatrick, Resnick, Saunders, Best & Epstein, 1994). Still other evidence suggests that youth victimization history increases risk of involvement with delinquent peers and of subsequent delinquent behavior (Ageton, 1983; Dembo et al., 1992; Straus, 1984; Widom, 1989, 1992). Some research shows that involvement with delinquent or deviant peers increases the risk of victimization (e.g., Ageton, 1983), and that substance use also increases risk of victimization (e.g., Kilpatrick et al., 1994; Cottler, Compton, Mager, Spitznagel, and Janca, 1992). Another line of research has found that a history of child abuse and neglect increases risk of delinquent behavior during childhood and adolescence and of being arrested for violent assault as an adult (e.g., Widom, 1989, 1994). This new knowledge about repeat victimization and the cycle of violence has several implications for appropriate mental health counseling for crime victims: †¢ Mental health professionals should include crime prevention and substance abuse prevention in their work with victims to decrease the risk that new victimization or substance abuse problems will occur (e.g., Kilpatrick et al., in press; Kilpatrick et al., 1994). †¢ Mental health professionals should not assume that the crime they are treating is the only one the victim has experienced. This requires taking a careful crime victimization history. †¢ Providing effective mental health counseling to victims may well be an effective way to reduce the risk of future victimization, substance use /abuse, delinquency and violent behavior. Residential Location Where an individual lives influences one’s risk of becoming a violent crime victim. Reiss and Roth (1993) report that violent crime rates increased as a function of community size. For example, the violent crime rate was 359 per 100,000 residents in cities of less than 10,000; but 2,243 per 100,000 in cities with populations over a million translates to rates seven times greater. (Reiss & Roth, 1993; p. 79). Data including non-reported crimes from the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) also indicate that violent crime rates are highest in central cities, somewhat lower in suburban areas, and lowest in rural areas (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992). The UCR and the NCVS are better at measuring street crime than at measuring violent crimes perpetrated by acquaintances or partners. Thus, the assumption that the increased risk of violent assault associated with residential location most likely results from stranger attacks, not necessarily from attacks by family members or other intimates, is a function of the limits of the measurement device. Exposure to Potential Assailants No violent assault can occur unless an assailant has access to a potential victim. Someone could have every previously discussed risk factor for violent assault and be completely safe from assault unless approached by an assailant. A prominent theory attempting to predict risk of criminal victimization is the routine activities theory. As described by Laub (1990), the risk of victimization is related to a person’s lifestyle, behavior, and routine activities. In turn, lifestyles and routine activities are generally related to demographic characteristics (e.g., age and marital status) and other personal characteristics. If a person’s lifestyle or routine activities places him or her in frequent contact with potential assailants, then they are more likely to be assaulted than if their routine activities and lifestyle do not bring them into as frequent contact with predatory individuals. For example, young men have higher rates of assaultive behavior than any other age-gend er group (Reiss & Roth, 1993; Rosenberg & Mercy, 1991). Thus, those whose routine activities or lifestyles involve considerable contact with young men should have higher rates of victimization. Likewise, people who are married, who never leave their houses after dark, and who never take public transportation should have limited contact with young men, and therefore have reduced risk of assault. Although some have argued that routine activities theory has substantial support in the empirical literature (Laub, 1990; Gottfredson, 1981), most of the crime victimization data that are used to evaluate assault risk measure stranger assaults much better than partner or acquaintance assaults. Thus, the theory is probably much more relevant to stranger assaults than to other assaults. VI. Conclusion and Recommendation Crime-related psychological trauma impairs the ability and/or willingness of many crime victims to cooperate with the criminal justice system. Many argued that victims must be treated better by the criminal justice system because it cannot accomplish its mission without the cooperation of victims. At every key stage of the criminal justice system process–from contemplating making a report to police, to attending a parole hearing–interactions can be stressful for victims and often exacerbates crime-related psychological trauma. Victims whose crime-related fear makes them reluctant to report crimes to police or who are too terrified to testify, effectively make it impossible for the criminal justice system to accomplish its mission. Thus, it is important to understand: †¢ Victims’ crime-related mental health problems. †¢ What aspects of the criminal justice system process are stressful to victims. †¢ What can be done to help victims with their crime-related mental health problems. †¢ What can be done to help victims cope with criminal justice system-related stress. Effective partnerships among the criminal justice system, victim assistance personnel, and trained mental health professionals can help victims with crime-related psychological trauma and with criminal justice system-related stress. By helping victims through such partnerships, the criminal justice system also helps itself become more effective in curbing and reducing crime. Several factors in the application of different conditioning principles to victims’ interactions with the criminal justice system helps us understand why the criminal justice system is so stressful for many victims. First, involvement with the criminal justice system requires crime victims to encounter many cognitive and environmental stimuli that remind them of the crime. These range from: †¢ Having to look at the defendant in the courtroom. †¢ Having to think about details of the crime when preparing to testify. †¢ Confronting a member of â€Å"second-order conditioned stimuli† in the form of police, victim/witness advocates, and prosecutors. Second, encountering all these crime-related conditioned stimuli often results in avoidance behavior on the part of the victims. †¢ Such avoidance behavior is generated by conditioned fear and anxiety, not by apathy. Avoidance can lead victims to cancel or not show up for appointments with criminal justice system officers, or victim advocates. Aside from conditioning, there are several other reasons that interacting with the criminal justice system can be stressful for victims. †¢ One reason interactions are stressful is because victims lack information about that system and its procedures, and victims fear the unknown. †¢ A second reason interactions are stressful is that victims are concerned about whether they will be believed and taken seriously by the criminal justice system. Most victims view the criminal justice system as representative of society as a whole, and whether they are believed and taken seriously by the system indicates to them whether they are believed and taken seriously by society. VI. Bibliography 1. (Bachman, 1994; Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992; FBI Uniform Crime Reports, 1992; Hanson, Freedy, Kilpatrick, and Saunders, 1993; Kilpatrick, Seymour & Boyle, 1991; Breslau, Davis, Andreski, and Peterson, 1991; Kilpatrick , Resnick, Saunders, and Best, in press; Norris, 1992; Adler et al., 1994; Reiss & Roth, 1993; Rosenberg & Mercy, 1991). 2. Dussich, John and Kiyoko Kishimoto. 2000. â€Å"Victim Assistance in Japan: History, Culture and Programmes.† In Paul C. Friday and Gerd Ferdinand Kirchhoff (editors) Victimology at the Transition: From the 20th to the 21st Century: Essays in Honor of Hans Joachim Schneider. M nchengladbach, Germany: Shaker Verlag. 3. Schafer, Stephen. 1968. The Victim and His Criminal. New York: Random House. 4. www.wikipedia.com 5. www.google.com.ph â€Å"Victimology†